Photocatalytic degradation and phytotoxicity assessment of diclofenac and paracetamol using exfoliated g-C3N4/Nb2O5 under sunlight

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5902/2179460X89084

Keywords:

Graphitic carbon nitride, Pharmaceuticals, Advanced oxidative processes

Abstract

This study evaluated the effectiveness of the photodegradation process under artificial sunlight irradiation for two pharmaceutical compounds, paracetamol and diclofenac, using g-C3N4-based photocatalysts, and investigated the phytotoxic potential (Lactuca sativa and Cucumis sativus) of the generated products. Four photocatalysts were evaluated (g-C3N4, g-C3N4/Nb2O5, exfoliated g-C3N4, and exfoliated g-C3N4/Nb2O5). For cucumber seeds, photolysis was sufficient to maintain adequate phytotoxicity, ensuring germination indices above 80% for both drugs. In contrast, for lettuce seeds, photolysis did not show the same performance, highlighting the need for heterogeneous photocatalysis. Regarding degradation, the average degradation rate of the four photocatalysts was higher (71.5%) for diclofenac, being 3.3 times greater than for paracetamol. Compared to bulk g-C3N4, the exfoliated g-C3N4/Nb2O5 photocatalyst was the most efficient, exhibiting degradation kinetic values 1.5 and 13.8 times higher for diclofenac and paracetamol, respectively. The results also indicate that the exfoliation step and the incorporation of niobium increase the surface area values, which ranged from 11 to 61 m²/g.

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Author Biographies

Julia Mendes, Universidade Federal de Pelotas

Bachelor's degree in Environmental and Sanitary Engineering from the Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPEL). Currently pursuing a Master's degree in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering at the Universidade de São Paulo (USP).

José André Ferreira Batista, Universidade Federal de Pelotas

Bachelor's degree in Environmental Management from the Centro Universitário Internacional (UNINTER) and in Environmental Engineering from the Universidade de Franca (UNIFRAN). Master's degree in Environmental Sciences from the Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPEL).

Maria Carolina Gomes Silva e Silva, Universidade Federal de Pelotas

Currently pursuing a degree in Environmental and Sanitary Engineering at the Federal University of Pelotas (UFPEL).

Willian Cézar Nadaleti, Universidade Federal de Pelotas

Bachelor's degree in Environmental Engineering from the Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita Filho (UNESP), and a Bachelor's degree in Physics from the Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná (UTFPR). Master's degree in Energy in Agriculture from the Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná (UNIOESTE). Doctorate in Environmental Engineering from the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC).

Cátia Fernandes Leite, Universidade Federal de Pelotas

Bachelor's and Master's degrees in Physical Education, PhD in Materials Science and Engineering from the Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPEL). Currently pursuing a Bachelor's degree in Nursing.

Priscila Martta Rodrigues, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos

Bachelor's degree in Mathematics and Mechanical Engineering, and a master's degree in Computational Modeling from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande (FURG). PhD in Mechanical Engineering from the Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos (UNISINOS).

Cícero Coelho de Escobar, Universidade Federal de Pelotas

Bachelor's degree in Chemical Engineering from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande (FURG). Master's and doctoral degrees in Chemical Engineering from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS).

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2026-07-01

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Vol. 48 (2026): Publicação contínua

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