Ci. e Nat., Santa Maria v.42, e23, 2020
DOI:10.5902/2179460X41170
ISSN 2179-460X
Received 17/11/19 Accepted:
14/01/20 Published:24/06/20
Environment
Abordagem dos Aspectos da Saúde no Licenciamento Ambiental no Setor
Mineiro Brasileiro
I Bolsista CAPES na
modalidade mestrado no Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Ambientais pela
UFPel. colaboradora no NEPERS e desenvolve pesquisa na área de gerenciamento de
resíduos de serviços de serviços de saúde no Hospital Escola vinculado a UFPel
II Bolsista
FAPERGS na modalidade mestrado no Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências
Ambientais (PPGCAmb) pela Universidade Federal de Pelotas
III Doutoranda no Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências e
Engenharia de Materiais do Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico (CDTec) da
Universidade Federal de Pelotas
IV Professora na Universidade Federal de Pelotas
(UFPel)
V Professora Associada da Universidade Federal de Pelotas
VI Graduação em Engenharia Agrícola pela Universidade
Federal de Pelotas (2001)
The mining activity generates several negative and positive environmental
impacts. Among the negatives impacts, it is find the
reduced air quality, noise generation and increased population flow, which
directly affect the health quality of the local population and the enterprise
workers. Thus, the aim of this work was to perform an analysis of documents as
Environmental Impact Study (EIS) and Terms of Reference (TR) regarding the
approach of health aspects in mining activities licensed by the Brazilian
federal environmental agency, proposing a methodology for its evaluation. The
methodology consisted of a qualitative and quantitative analysis of health
aspects according to the matrix already used in another study. It was proposed
to insert weights for attributes analysis culminating in a scale of approach to
health aspects: low, medium and high. Thus, limitations were found regarding
the availability of studies and TRs in the environmental agency system.
Regarding the EIS, most aspects of health had a medium approach, the diagnostic
stage was highlighted as the most complete and the monitoring and accompaniment
stage were detected as presenting the lowest approach. The greatest weaknesses was the identification of specialists responsible for the
health approach, the lack of estimates of investments in the sector.
Keywords: Health Impact Assessment. Environmental impacts. Social
impacts. Environmental Impact Study.
1 INTRODUCTION
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an
instrument of the National Environmental Policy (PNMA), established by Law No.
6,938 of 1981 (BRASIL, 1981), whose application is associated with licensing,
providing support for the analysis of environmental license in the case of
projects presenting potential to cause significant environmental impact (ALMEIDA;
MONTAÑO, 2015). Thus, EIA supports decision-making on the economic, technical
and environmental viability of projects, programs, plans and policies by the
responsible agencies.
The EIA tool, which depends on the preparation of the
Environmental Impact Study (EIS) and its Environmental Impact Report (EIR), was
the first environmental policy mechanism to be adopted in Brazil, established
as one of the PNMA instruments (BRASIL, 1981). From this, the National
Environmental Council (CONAMA) published, through Resolution No. 01 of 1986,
the definitions, responsibilities, basic criteria and general guidelines for
the use and implementation of the EIA (BRASIL, 1986).
In this context, the Brazilian legislation presupposes
environmental and social impacts should be identified and evaluated in EIA,
including those related to health (BALBY, 2012). However, in practice,
negligence occurs often in addressing the health effects of the population in
EIS and EIR (ABE; MIRAGLIA, 2018; BARBOSA et al., 2012).
Within the process of environmental licensing in the
country, although considered one of the most complete in the world, the process
is complex and bureaucratic (MONTEIRO; SILVA, 2018). The only legal tool for
health participation occur through CONAMA Resolution
No. 286 of 2001 (BRASIL, 2001), which regulates the licensing of activities in
malaria endemic regions. Also, in Ordinance No. 47 of 2006 of the Health
Surveillance Secretariat (BRASIL, 2006), which provides for the Evaluation of
Malariginal Potential and the Certificate of Sanitary Condition for land reform
settlement projects and other projects in the Amazon region. According to Abe
and Miraglia (2018), for other health fundamentals, there is a gap in the laws
and guidelines related to environmental licensing.
In this context, the Health Impact Assessment (HIA),
which was proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO), is an efficient
methodology for highlighting both positive and negative impacts due to local
intervention from a policy, plan, program or project (WHO, 1999). Thus, it is
noteworthy that HIA does not overlap with other evaluations, but allows the
health to be evaluated during different interventions, offering a new
perspective of evaluation that was not previously taken into account by
decision makers (SILVEIRA; FENNER, 2017).
Regarding the institutionalization of HIA, it is not
verified in any Latin American country and, although it is not yet implemented
in projects or public policies in Brazil, there are legal protection to support
its adhesion in the planning of activities (DREWRY; KWIATKOWSKI, 2015; ABE;
MIRAGLIA, 2018). Thus, in the current context of environmental licensing,
social impacts and their effects on health are not addressed in the design and
planning stage of enterprises. Also, Queiroz and Veiga
(2012) state that EIS do not adequately address socio-environmental impacts,
which reflects in insufficient and limited mitigating and compensatory actions.
Thus, Cancio (2008) suggests that EIS should address
health related issues in more detail. As a result, it proposes a methodology,
in matrix form, to analyse the health aspects of the EIS of hydroelectric
plants, considering the weakness of these in contemplating such issues.
Similarly, Queiroz and Veiga
(2012) analysed the social impacts and their health effects on indigenous
populations affected by two large hydroelectric projects: the Brazilian Tucuruí plant with the Parakanã
population and the Canadian James Bay with the Cree population through a post-fact
literature review on hydroelectric dams. The authors found that the negative
environmental impacts resulting from these enterprises caused significant
social changes in individual and collective health, generating health problems
and increasing the costs for treating the diseases generated. Barbosa et al.
(2012) adapted Cancio (2008) matrix for oil and gas industry, and analysed 24
EIS from these sectors and found that in most cases there was little or no
explanation regarding health aspects in the studies.
As with the aforementioned developments, mining
activities in recent years has a negatively image due to issues related to
their impact on the environment, causing deforestation, destruction of the
natural landscape, release of dust, pollutants and increased gases of
greenhouse effect (AGWA-EJON; PRADHAN, 2018). Bacci
et al. (2006) state that the undesirable environmental effects of mining
activity are associated with its various phases: exploration of mineral goods,
digging, use of explosives in rock dismantling, transportation and ore
processing. The authors emphasize that these steps influence both natural
resources such as water, soil and air, as well as the anthropic environment,
affecting the well-being of the population.
In addition, Smith et al. (2016) and Rupprecht (2015)
stand out for other mining related issues that are slowly receiving due
attention, such as health and safety issues, which may include ergonomic
stress, injury, noise, dust exposure of toxic chemicals, noise and vibration,
and overexertion, influencing physical well-being of the workers.
It is notable that the EIS are prepared based on what
is determined by their respective Terms of Reference (TR), which is a document
prepared by the environmental agency to delimit the scope of the study to be
carried out by the proponent of the project. Therefore, it is also necessary to
evaluate the TRs in relation to addressing health issues, because if they do
not mention this issue, neither will the EIS present this level of detailing.
Brazil was the scene of two environmental accidents
involving mining activities: the breaking of two tailings dams in the city of
Mariana and Brumadinho, both in the state of Minas Gerais. The
socioenvironmental impacts caused, including many with unknown magnitude, still
generate discussion and place the mining activity as the focus of attention
regarding the quality of previous studies and the effectiveness of
environmental monitoring and compliance with conditions of environmental
licenses.
Since mining can cause health impacts due to its
activities, this paper aimed to analyse the health aspects approach in the TRs
and EIS of mining projects licensed by the Brazilian Institute of Environment
and Natural and Renewable Resources (IBAMA) and thus establish a methodological
proposal for evaluation.
2
METHODOLOGY
This study is based on a qualitative and quantitative
methodology that, according to Lakatos and Marconi (2004), the qualitative
seeks to substantiate the interpretation of phenomena and assign meanings to them,
without the application of resources and statistical techniques. The
quantitative research should only be used when there is a well-defined problem,
as well as information and theory regarding the focus of the research and/or
what it is intended to study (SILVA; SIMON, 2005).
The adopted procedures started by conducting a
bibliographic survey and definition of the study universe (mining). Therefore,
it was verified through the Computerized Federal Environmental Licensing System
(SISLIC) of IBAMA (https://servicos.ibama.gov.br/licenciamento/consulta_empreendimentos.php)
the TR and respective EIS available for the mining activities. The selection of
EIS used in the research was based on their availability in the system
(http://licenciamento.ibama.gov.br/Mineracao/) and the processes that presented
other types of environmental studies or those that were incomplete (absence of
some volume/part) were excluded from the analysis.
Thus, the TRs and EIS were evaluated regarding the
approach to health aspects, according to the matrix proposed by Barbosa et al.
(2012). These analysed aspects were grouped into seven different analytical
categories: project description; diagnosis; identification, assessment and
communication of impacts; evaluation of alternatives; compatibility between
government actions and the enterprise; mitigating actions; accompaniment and
monitoring; according to the methodology presented by the authors.
Health aspects were qualitatively characterized
according to the explanation found in the environmental study: non-existent,
partial or total, according to the methodology of Barbosa et al. (2012). For
the quantitative evaluation, the contemplation degrees (weights) were then
proposed for each qualitative evaluation item: non-existent (weight 1); partial
(weight 2); and total (weight 3).
Thus, for each health aspect mentioned above, the
number of studies addressing each type of explanation was verified. After,
these numbers were multiplied by the corresponding weight:
- Number of studies that had no explicit (NO)
explanation multiplied by 1;
- Number of studies that presented partial (P)
explanation multiplied by 2;
- Number of studies that presented total (T)
explanation multiplied by 3.
The values generated in the multiplication of degrees
of contemplation were then summed and evaluated according to the aspects
approach. The “Health Aspects Approach Scale” was created according to the
number of evaluated EISs, as follows:
- Minimum value: corresponding to the number of
evaluated EISs multiplied by 1 (lowest degree of contemplation);
- Maximum value: corresponding to the number of
evaluated EISs multiplied by 3 (highest degree of contemplation).
When conducting the research on IBAMA's website, it
was verified the existence of 290 mining environmental licensing processes, but
only 15 of these presented access to the EIS.
Regarding the TR of EIS used for this research, only 6 were available
either in the EIS text or in a separate file. The evaluated EISs correspond to
the processes presented in Table 1. It is noteworthy that the process number of
Enterprise 15 contained in the EIS was not found in the IBAMA system.
Table 1 - Processes whose
EISs were evaluated in this study
Identification |
Process
number |
1 |
02001.005036/2010-85 |
2 |
02001.000415/2012-41 |
3 |
02001.001766/2012-79 |
4 |
02001.004429/2005-12 |
5 |
02012.000540/2006-83 |
6 |
02001.004105/2004-95 |
7 |
02001.003450/2004-10 |
8 |
02001.003944/2001-43 |
9 |
02018.005915/94-92 |
10 |
02001.008141/2002-66 |
11 |
02001.000711/2009-46 |
12 |
02001.004046/2011-84 |
13 |
02001.002387/98-87 |
14 |
02001.005454/2004-24 |
15 |
Not found |
Thus, considering that 15
EISs were evaluated, the approach scale was established according to Table 2.
Table 2 - Scale of Health
Aspects Approach
Scale |
Health
Aspects Approach |
15 - 25 |
LOW |
26 - 36 |
AVERAGE |
37 - 45 |
HIGH |
3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 3 shows the results obtained from the analysis
of health aspects in the EISs/EIR of the mining activities found in the present
study.
Table 3 - Matrix
of analysis of health aspects in the EIS/EIR of mining activities
Analytical
Category |
Health
Aspects |
Explicit
in EIS |
Multiplication
by weights |
Total |
Approach |
||||
NO |
P |
T |
1 |
2 |
3 |
||||
Project description |
Technical team responsible for health approach |
8 |
5 |
2 |
8 |
10 |
6 |
24 |
AVERAGE |
Occupation and land use dynamics (soil, water, and
population migrations and displacements) |
|
7 |
8 |
0 |
14 |
24 |
38 |
HIGH |
|
Quantitative estimative of income generation,
employment, taxes and royalties |
1 |
9 |
5 |
1 |
18 |
15 |
34 |
HIGH |
|
Estimates of direct or indirect use of financial
resources to improve health |
14 |
1 |
|
14 |
2 |
0 |
16 |
LOW |
|
Socioenvironmental Diagnosis of Influence Areas |
Epidemiological profile |
|
5 |
10 |
0 |
10 |
30 |
40 |
HIGH |
Socioeconomic profile |
|
5 |
10 |
0 |
10 |
30 |
40 |
HIGH |
|
Health Resources, Services and Infrastructure |
|
5 |
10 |
0 |
10 |
30 |
40 |
HIGH |
|
Education Resources, Services, and Infrastructure |
1 |
5 |
9 |
1 |
10 |
27 |
38 |
HIGH |
|
Perception of health impacts and risks |
2 |
7 |
6 |
2 |
14 |
18 |
34 |
HIGH |
|
Impact Identification, Assessment and Communication |
Impacts and risks to workers' health (physical,
chemical, ergonomic and biological) |
3 |
8 |
4 |
3 |
16 |
12 |
31 |
AVERAGE |
Impacts and risks to population health |
4 |
7 |
4 |
4 |
14 |
12 |
30 |
AVERAGE |
|
Impact of the activities on health indicators (morbidity,
mortality, outpatient and hospital care, etc.) |
6 |
6 |
3 |
6 |
12 |
9 |
27 |
AVERAGE |
|
Impact of enterprise on social and economic
indicators (GDP, education, sanitation, employment and income, etc.) |
2 |
7 |
6 |
2 |
14 |
18 |
34 |
HIGH |
|
Communication of health impacts |
7 |
1 |
7 |
7 |
2 |
21 |
30 |
AVERAGE |
|
Compatibility between government and enterprise
actions |
Identification of government plans, projects and
programs |
3 |
4 |
8 |
3 |
8 |
24 |
35 |
HIGH |
Evaluation of compatibility between government and
enterprise actions |
4 |
10 |
1 |
4 |
20 |
3 |
27 |
AVERAGE |
|
Evaluation of government health actions |
3 |
7 |
5 |
3 |
14 |
15 |
32 |
AVERAGE |
|
Assessment of health enterprise actions |
2 |
13 |
|
2 |
26 |
0 |
28 |
AVERAGE |
|
Alternatives evaluation |
Assessment of location alternatives |
2 |
5 |
8 |
2 |
10 |
24 |
36 |
HIGH |
Evaluation of technological alternatives |
4 |
3 |
8 |
4 |
6 |
24 |
34 |
HIGH |
|
Evaluation of economic
alternatives |
5 |
9 |
1 |
5 |
18 |
3 |
26 |
AVERAGE |
|
Cost-benefit analysis of potential health impacts |
15 |
|
|
15 |
0 |
0 |
15 |
LOW |
|
Identification of mitigation measure |
Mitigating measures regarding the impacts of the
project |
|
7 |
8 |
0 |
14 |
24 |
38 |
HIGH |
Mitigation measures regarding infrastructure and
health services |
|
9 |
6 |
0 |
18 |
18 |
36 |
HIGH |
|
Specific mitigation measures for at-risk and most
vulnerable populations |
3 |
9 |
3 |
3 |
18 |
9 |
30 |
AVERAGE |
|
Definition of emergency and contingency plans
considering the type and extent of impacts |
3 |
3 |
9 |
3 |
6 |
27 |
36 |
HIGH |
|
Monitoring and control of health impacts |
Monitoring of worker health actions by the
enterprise |
1 |
10 |
4 |
1 |
20 |
12 |
33 |
AVERAGE |
Monitoring of population health actions by the
enterprise |
8 |
4 |
3 |
8 |
8 |
9 |
25 |
AVERAGE |
|
Government monitoring of worker health actions |
13 |
1 |
1 |
13 |
2 |
3 |
18 |
LOW |
|
Government monitoring of population health actions |
11 |
3 |
1 |
11 |
6 |
3 |
20 |
LOW |
3.1 Term of Reference
Based on the analysis of
the IBAMA website, due to the lack of availability of all terms of reference,
it was decided to evaluate the health approach qualitatively, unlike the EISs,
which had a quantitative analysis. It should be noted that, for the most part,
unavailable TRs refer to older processes, some dating back to the 1990s, so
they may not have been scanned into the system.
The requirement of
addressing health aspects was verified in the TRs in the socioeconomic
diagnosis item. It was noticed that the description required in the terms
refers to the characterization of the health quality of the population of the
area of direct and/or indirect influence of the enterprise, through the
epidemiological profile, mortality rates, morbidity, profile of health
facilities.
In addition, in some terms,
it was required a description of programs related to health in private and
governmental levels, as well as the formal and non-formal health care systems
of the population and workers of the enterprise. In addition, the requirement
to describe the impact pressure on health services could be noted. Regarding to
mitigation measures, some terms required the implementation of environmental
health programs. However, it is noteworthy that one of the terms evaluated did
not include the health approach.
A study performed by
Rigotto (2009) analysed the inclusion of health impact assessment in the TR of
a coal-fired thermal power plant. The author highlighted some points, such as
the omission at the end of the project about the indication of the energy
distribution network generated on site, considering that it is necessary to
know the path and the power to analyse the human exposure to the
electromagnetic field that the network can generate. In addition, the author
considered necessary to implement details regarding the volume and
characteristics of the coal to be consumed, especially the sulphur content;
specify dust emissions during coal transportation and handling operations,
which may be harmful to both workers and the surrounding community; indicate
the physical, chemical, biological risk factors and collective labour
protection measures.
Therefore, in order that
health determinants to be included in the EIA, they must be required (HRESC et
al., 2018), as the definition of the scope of the study significantly
influences the success of the environmental assessment (MULVIHILL; BAKER,
2001).
3.2 Project description
In the project description
stage, it was verified a low approach to aspects directly related to health. It
can be noticed that the aspects that had medium and high approach are those
that concern the estimates of income, employment, land use and occupation and
population dynamics, and thus not necessarily associated with health elements.
It is noteworthy that, although the analytical category is “project
description” and that in some cases this item was very organized and complete,
the descriptions of land use dynamics present in the stage of socio-economic
diagnosis of EIA were also considered, because it was thought that on this
topic this information would be really detailed. It is noteworthy that there
are no estimates of resource allocation in health in 14 of the 15 evaluated
EIS, in addition to the lack of indication of the technicians responsible for
health issues, nonexistent in 8 EISs.
The presence of
professionals from different areas is essential in the elaboration of an EIS.
Rodrigues (2010) emphasizes that interdisciplinarity is necessary, in the same
way, in the analysis process of these studies. According to Balby (2012), there
is a complaint from health experts about the lack of their formal involvement
in EISs, licensing processes, definition and implementation of measures to
manage the impacts of enterprises. Regarding this, the author points out that the
advantages of using specialists include: the implementation of more structured
methodologies, the multidisciplinary nature of the studies and the commitment
to the health objectives of different institutions and sectors.
The expansion and
discussion around a multidisciplinary EIS, within the current development
context, is essential for the improvement of instruments that strengthen
sectoral public policies and understand the productive processes that impact on
the natural environment and consequently on population health (SILVEIRA; ARAÚJO
NETO, 2014). In addition, considering that major works have the potential to
cause major social and environmental impacts, it is necessary to include the
demands related to health impacts, especially in the territorial dimensions,
because the social and political organization in these geographic spaces can
decisively influence the way the health risks are disseminated among different
social groups (MIRANDA et al., 2008).
As in this study, in an
analysis of three Australian EISs related to mining activities, the authors
found that the studies were unable to determine the economic impacts of
projects on the health and well-being of local communities (HRESC et al.,
2018). The health improvement costs not being estimated demonstrates the lack
of interest and irrelevance of health aspects within the evaluated projects. It
can be seen that even if the project predict
mitigation and compensation actions in the health area, there is no guarantee
that they will be effectively fulfilled, as they are not even being accounted
for within the financial planning. Therefore, it is necessary to address health
aspects within economic estimates so that it become more relevant to the
overall project scenario, as well as the inclusion of health professionals in
the context of environmental studies.
3.3 Socioenvironmental Diagnosis of Influence Areas
The diagnostic category was the most complete among
those analysed in the matrix, with 4 of the 5 aspects showing a high approach
to health issues. Only the aspect of “perception of health impacts and risks”
has a medium-scale approach, however, it is believed that this element is
somewhat confused with the stage of identification, assessment and forecasting
of impacts. As the EIS number 14, some of the studies presented surveys
conducted through field research in health departments, and through interviews,
as in the case of EIS number 15. The others, however, only detailed secondary
data taken from databases public data known as the Unified Health System
Informatics System (DATASUS) and the Brazilian Institute of Geography and
Statistics (IBGE).
One of the problems associated with the use of
secondary data, such as the IBGE census, is the discrepancy. The publication of
the census occurs every 10 years, so if data are compromised, it will not be
possible to draw an efficient planning for the territory under analysis (SOUZA et
al., 2018). Another factor to consider is the period between the preparation of
the EIS, the implementation and operation of activities, which can take many
years. In this time interval, real estate speculation and job creation near the
project may lead to an unforeseen population increase, as in the case of the
Belo Monte Plant, generating consequences for local public health (FRAGELLI;
OLIVEIRA, 2017).
Similarly, Cancio (2008), in his assessment of the
insertion of health aspects in EISs of Brazilian hydroelectric dams, also found
a greater approach in the baseline studies (environmental diagnostics),
characterized by surveys of health services, diseases and aggravations of
notifications through secondary information that did not represent the local
reality.
The greater complexity and explicitation presented in
this category may be associated with the fact that the TRs, as already
mentioned, are more specifically related to the requirements of
characterization of health aspects in the socio-environmental diagnosis
section. Therefore, it is highly recommended that the environmental agency require information regarding the description of the
epidemiological profile and the health services and infrastructures of the
areas with direct/indirect influence, as delimited in the TR.
In addition, it can be highlighted that there are
three health-related points present in most of the mining EIS diagnoses
evaluated: air quality, noise and regional endemic diseases. Regarding air
quality, an important factor related to mining activity, dust generation and
particulate dispersion were associated with occupational risk to the health of
workers and the surrounding population, as well as the noise approach.
Regarding endemic diseases, it can be highlighted that
most of the analysed EISs corresponded to mining enterprises in the Northern
Region of Brazil, which highlights the fact that research is conducted on such
diseases, especially malaria. This action corresponds to what is requested by
CONAMA Resolution No. 286 of 2001 (BRASIL, 2001), which refers to
the environmental licensing of activities in malaria endemic regions. According
to this resolution, activities that may enhance risk factors for the occurrence
of malaria cases in endemic regions should develop epidemiological studies and
direct programs aimed at controlling the disease and its vectors, to be
implemented in the various phases of the activities.
The stage of diagnosis was the one that presented the
most information related to health, however, in general, the aspects were found
to be more descriptive. Thus, although they seem more complete, the base
studies end up becoming extensive and exhaustive documents, which do not
reflect the environmental dynamics of the studied area.
3.4 Impact Identification, Evaluation and Reporting
Some authors point to the fact that environmental
studies presented as the basis for the implementation of potentially polluting
activities have been shown to be inefficient in identifying and assessing the
impacts and lack of health risks associated with these projects, in many cases
becoming restricted to the biophysical aspects (BARBOSA et al., 2012; SILVEIRA,
2016). Similarly, in the present research, an average approach to health
aspects was verified in the category of “Identification, assessment and
communication of impacts”. This stage is the most important of the EIS, because
when not identified, the impacts on health and its infrastructures will not be
avoided, mitigated or compensated.
Among the impacts generated by the mining sectors, the
health of workers and the surrounding community are negatively affected,
considering the changes in air quality and noise production (IRAMINA et al.,
2009; LIRA et al., 2012). Some of the impacts identified in project number 11
were the risk of increasing the number of cases of endemics issues and the
introducing of new endemics in the project region, due to the displacement of
infected people from other regions of the country to work in, as well as
increased cases of sexually transmitted diseases. Another impact pointed out by
projects number 1 and number 12 is the pressure on public health services due
to the increased demand for care. On the other hand, in the case of EIS number
4, a 1994 study, no health impact is mentioned.
Contrasting the results found in this study, in a
study conducted by Barbosa et al. (2012), none of the environmental studies of
the oil typology analysed by the authors presented information about the
impacts on the population's health and health indicators. In other research,
Noble and Bronson (2005) analysed human health considerations in EISs from
Canadian mining projects, and concluded that human and social health were not
adequately approached within these studies and stated the need to monitoring
actual health impacts after project approval and ensure mitigation and
improvement measures are indeed effective.
Zakrizon et al. (2015) conducted a study in El Salvador and
concluded that Salvadorans perceive gold mining as a threat to public and
environmental health. The interviewees raise important questions: contamination
of land and water by mining inevitably affects the health of the local
population. Such questions can be applied to any potentially polluting
activities, which reaffirms the importance of a more efficient approach of
health issues within EISs. Suopajarvi (2013) states
that social impacts generally receive little attention in environmental studies
evaluated for mining projects in northern Finland.
The diversity of social and environmental problems and
the complexity involved in social issues related to the health-disease process
include basic factors such as employment, sanitation, housing, education,
income and access to health services (SILVEIRA et al., 2012).
As in the case of EIS number 14, when addressing
issues such as sanitation and housing, it is related its quality with public
health. In other words, the increased demand for sanitation and housing
services may trigger another impact, which is the population's illness and the
reduction in their life quality (OMS, 1946; SILVEIRA et al., 2012; BRASIL,
2014). This health impact is only identified when it is analysed the relation
between impact and cause.
Thus, the entrepreneur proposes to contribute to the
Government to improve these sectors when they are negatively affected by the
dynamics of the enterprise (considering the population increase due to works,
for example). However, by analysing the impacts generated by the construction
of the Belo Monte Hydroelectric Power Plant (HPP) on urban development and
public health, Souza et al. (2018) state that EISs are unsatisfactory regarding
health impacts during the construction of a HPP, as
health problems are viewed as secondary results of environmental impact.
3.5 Compatibility between government and enterprise
actions
In this item, it was possible to verify that the
health approach was average. The points described were most observed in the
Diagnostic and Mitigating Measures sections. In this context, the Diagnosis
verified the actions (plans, projects and programs), whose objectives were
already established by the public power. In mitigating measures, the actions
were related to the proposals for insertion of new actions or improvement of
existing ones.
An example is the mining activity number 4 that shows
in its EIS, in the Mitigating Measures section, that the municipalities of this
region of Pará had, at the time of the EIS, 27 public health programs initiated
and directed by the federal government and the city itself, highlighting the
National Tuberculosis Control Program and the Malaria Control Program.
Regarding the partnership of the private sector with
the municipal government, the municipalities of Oriximiná
and Terra Santa at the time did not have medical care of private units. The
partnership develops programs for the communities that live in the
mining-industrial facilities and municipalities of the region where the
enterprise operates or exerts some kind of influence. Examples are Sexually
Transmitted Diseases and Early Pregnancy Awareness Programs, Oral Health
Education and Prevention Program, and Malaria Transmitting Mosquito Prevention,
the latter being indefinite, while the others closed in 2009.
Based on the example of the project mentioned and the
average classification of approach to health aspects in this item, it can be
seen that there should be more programs focused on the health of the local
population and workers of the project, mainly because of the example being from
a very fragile region and with little assistance from various levels by the
government. This reinforces the idea that the low consideration of health
issues in the environmental licensing processes of enterprises demonstrates
that there is a lack of articulation between sectoral public policies in view
of the social and environmental impacts generated by large enterprises (SILVEIRA
et al., 2012; SILVEIRA; ARAÚJO NETO, 2014).
The O'Mullane and Harris-Roxa (2015) bibliographic review study addresses the
effectiveness of the use of HIA, and it can be seen that the use of this tool
is more evident in the regions of North America, Europe and Australia,
presenting an increased practice in South America, China and African states in
recent years. In addition, the same study shows that in the United States there
is a health impact project that promotes the use of the HIA tool as a
decision-making aid for policy makers.
3.6 Alternatives Evaluation
For this topic, one point
to note is the cost-benefit analysis of potential health impacts, which had no
consideration in the EISs, showing that these activities do not show a greater
interest in performing this analysis and have a feedback, either of the
population or of the workers themselves and in relation to the amount invested
in health issues.
For the other items, the
approach was average, highlighting that there are not many choices regarding
the location of installation of this type of activity, because the ore to be
extracted is intrinsic to the site. However, in the analysis made, it was
possible to verify locational alternatives for the disposal of tailings, for
example, being classified as partial approach. Also, the so-called “zero
alternative” was verified, which is characterized as an option of not having
the installation of the project, and those that presented this element in the
EIS were classified as total approaching.
Silveira (2010) and
Silveira and Araújo Neto (2014), comment in their studies that the
implementation of large enterprises, such as mining, lead to an increase in the
costs of services in health systems. Thus, there must be introducing clearer
tools to encourage governments and entrepreneurs to introduce health-related
costs into their plans, projects and programs, so that this does not reflect in
tax increases and reduced quality of care for health-care facilities to local
population.
Regarding the technological
alternative, it was classified as average. Although it has been mentioned, this
issue should be much more evaluated and considered in the decision-making to
choose more and more technological alternatives that seek to reduce pollution,
and equipment to help the work of miners, as the location alternatives depend
on the location of the ores to be explored.
The IBAMA Joint Ordinance No.
259 of August 7, 2009 requires the entrepreneur to include in the EIS/EIR a
specific chapter on cleaner technology alternatives in order to reduce impacts
on workers' health and the environment, including thermal pollution, noise and
emissions harmful to the respiratory system (BRASIL, 2009). Silva, Augusto and
Gurgel (2013) in their study on occupational health analysis in refinery
licensing, evaluated three enterprises, two of which presented technological
alternatives that helped control pollution, establishing the promotion of
worker health.
3.7 Mitigation Measures
Identification
Regarding this point, the
results obtained were three items of medium approach and one item of high,
where all EISs showed their mitigating measures for the possible impacts of the
projects, contemplating further details of these measures. An example would be
the proposed implementation of health programs, as well as the communication of
health impacts, many of which associate the population and workers of the
enterprises as participants, not just benefiting employees.
In project number 2, for
example, located in the municipality of Corumbá, it was verified a mitigating
measure in health infrastructure. The measure is the Health Program in the
Project Implementation Phase, which has the implementation of ambulatory at the
construction sites, aimed at first aid and outpatient care for workers of
MCR/Vale and contractors, with room for consultation, room for rest and
emergency and nursing, in order to soften and control the local public health
infrastructure.
In this same project,
mitigation measures can also be verified in order to mitigate the impact of
discomfort on the surrounding population through measures, programs and plans.
Some examples are the monitoring the air quality, operating the equipment with
the greatest noise potential during business hours, planning the transportation
of materials and equipment during off-peak hours and at night on the main
access roads to the Project, control of motor vehicle speeds on the main access
roads to the mine, and solid waste management control, among others.
In addition, it should be
highlighted in project 2, the Socio-Environmental Communication and Information
Plan, which aims to establish a permanent and transparent channel of
communication between the project and society, disseminating information
through regular meetings or other means of communication. With this, both the
general community with contractors and workers can clarify their doubts and
explain their concerns, especially on health issues.
The discussion of these
issues becomes extremely important to help the approval of the population
regarding the installation of the enterprise. In addition to showing an ethical
position on the part of the enterprises to worry about the impacts generated
that will influence the health of the population and the worker, provide spaces
for disease prevention disclosure and to discuss
about other diseases, i.e. AIDS.
It might be highlighted the
importance of proposing programs that are really efficient and compatible with
local realities, that assist the risk populations with greater vulnerability,
as they can suffer major consequences related to the negative impacts of large
enterprises.
Similar to the James Bay
Dam in Quebec, cited by Tanner (1999) and Queiroz and Veiga
(2012), which had serious adverse impacts on the Cree Indians, including social
disintegration and the disappearance of traditional ways of life. In addition,
there was influence in health aspects, due to unplanned social changes
associated with changes in habits and diets, such as increased alcohol abuse,
drugs and cases of depression and suicide. It also led to the high rates of diabetes,
obesity and occurrence of sexually transmitted diseases among the affected
populations.
3.8 Monitoring and Control of Health Impacts
In general, the health monitoring of action phase is
seen in EISs as having low approach, such as in the enterprises numbers 7, 5,
2, and 4. It can be noticed that both government and entrepreneurship do not
monitor health actions for the worker and the population, and may be related to
the fact that there is little report about hiring professionals to deal with
these issues throughout the installation and operation of the enterprise. It is
only seen that there are actions, mainly for bureaucratic reasons, but there is
no awareness, ethics and commitment to monitor the impacts that directly affect
the health of the community and miners. This part is considered extremely
important both for the monitoring of government actions and for the enterprise,
because with proper monitoring, there is a possibility of improvement or
correction of the implemented programs.
Robust impact monitoring requires assessing the
population potentially affected by health impacts and a control population (PETTICREW
et al., 2007). However, as pointed out by Balby (2012), there is still a lack
of transparency, awareness and responsibility of entrepreneurs in disclosing
the results of monitoring health actions, which may be justified by the absence
of it in the evaluated EISs. Thus, the author comments that the assessment of
health actions in EISs becomes a sensitive methodological step towards “minimizing
negative impacts and maximizing positive impacts in different social, economic
and geographic contexts”, as explained above in the document published by the
Ministry of Health.
From the screening stage to monitoring, decisions are
made that reflect the political, economic, cultural, institutional context and
the balance or imbalance of forces between the various stakeholders in the HIA
process and decision making regarding a proposal (BALBY, 2012).
Several studies have been conducted on the scope of
health in the environmental licensing process in Brazil (SOUZA et al., 2018; SILVA
et al., 2013; RIGOTTO, 2009; QUEIROZ; VEIGA, 2012; SILVEIRA; ARAÚJO NETO,
2014), drawing attention to the theme. Thus, it is believed that with these
studies the environmental agencies may be gradually including health aspects as
a more relevant factor within the analysis processes. However, for health to be
effectively addressed within EISs, it is essential that they are also in the
TRs prepared by environmental agencies.
4
CONCLUSIONS
From the assessment of the
EISs of mining activities, it was noticed that the most recent ones present a
more complete set of information regarding health issues, although in many
cases they still focus on presenting secondary data or without interrelating
them with the physical, biotic and socioenvironmental areas.
In addition, there is a
need for greater participation of health experts in EIA processes, improving
project credibility, assisting in the formulation, and monitoring of health
care programs/plans. One of the biggest highlights observed with this research
was the lack of monitoring of health actions with the population and workers,
showing a lack of responsibility by both the government and the enterprise to follow
up and support these actions. Therefore, there is no coherence in implementing
actions and then not following them and establishing corrective measures, when
necessary, not guaranteeing the continuity of the programs.
Mining is considered a
highly polluting activity, especially in relation to the reduction of air
quality by particulate matter and the generation of noise, causing hearing
disorders and stressful situations to the individual. Thus, even with
limitations in the choice of location alternatives, greater attention should be
given to the implementation of technological and economic assessments that
encompass the health theme.
Finally, for an improvement
in the approach to health aspects in Brazilian environmental licensing, there
is a need for greater demands on these issues in the TRs. Thus, it is
indispensable to encourage the responsibility of entrepreneurs, funding
institutions, government, population and employees, in order to improve the
sustainable management of activities with pollution potential.
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This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de
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