Universidade Federal de Santa Maria

Ci. e Nat., Santa Maria, v. 41, e57, 2019.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5902/2179460X35596

Received: 12/11/2018 Accepted: 24/10/2019

 

by-nc-sa

 


Section Environment

 

 

The right to basic sanitation: land use and water quality after decommissioning of a landfill in Arantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil

 

Fabiola de Sampaio Rodrigues Grazinoli GarridoI

Valéria Garcez de OliveiraII

 

I  Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil - fabiola_srg@yahoo.com.br

II Universidade Federal Fluminense, RJ, Brasil - valeria_garcez@outlook.com

 

Abstract

Arantina, a municipality of Minas Gerais, Brazil, has 2,873 inhabitants by 2010 IBGE census. It does not have a water treatment system and, until 2017, water was distributed directly from the catchment area to residential areas. The water catchment area was located downstream of a landfill that was decommissioned in 2013 and was not subjected to health risk assessment. The objective of this study was to report the land use conditions of this contaminated area located upstream of a water damn and the quality of the water from the damn - pH and electrical conductivity - were analyzed in water samples collected from the catchment area, residential areas, and water mines used as water sources by the residents. In addition, the analysis of official data on the health of the residents indicates the need to invest in basic sanitation.

Keywords: environmental chemistry; basic sanitation; water resources; public health

 

 

1 Introduction

Socioenvironmental problems should be evaluated and mitigated through interdisciplinary work, as proposed by Jacobi and Giatti (2017). Several relevant factors contribute to these vulnerabilities, particularly in situations in which social groups have limited water resources. The lack of water resources can be due to problems in the water cycle or the high prevalence of water bodies that cannot be used for human and animal consumption. Poor environmental management systems in the industrial sector, construction of hydroelectric power plants, lack of hydrogeochemical studies, watercourse deviations, non-compliance with environmental laws, and lack of basic sanitation in municipalities can transform enterprises and jobs into threats to the future use of resources. The limited number of strategies with a strong impact on water management indicates the need for developing conservation-based approaches.

In Brazil, there are legal provisions available to protect natural resources and also the right for future generations to use these resources in a sustainable way. Federal Law 12,305/2010 instituted the National Solid Waste Policy in Brazil. This Law established the socioeconomic inclusion of collectors of recyclable materials and the closure of landfills until August 2014. In addition, this law set forth principles, objectives, and instruments, as well as guidelines for the integrated management of urban solid waste (USW), including hazardous wastes, and indicated that these activities should be developed by managers, municipal public authorities, and relevant economic bodies. Despite the guidelines for integrated USW management, some Brazilian municipalities with less than 20,000 inhabitants are not legally required to have a waste management plan. Another important strategy is assessing land use in these municipalities. The inadequate management of landfills and the lack of water and sewage treatment plants promote the formation of active sources of environmental contamination that compromise the potability of water used for human consumption.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2016) talks about the importance of water for the world economy and highlights:

Unsustainable management of water resources and other natural resources can cause serious damage to economies and society by significantly reversing the benefits of poverty reduction, job creation and development.

UNESCO further states that almost 78% of the jobs constituting the global workforce are dependent on water resources.

Article 225 of the 1988 Federal Brazilian Constitution guarantees all Brazilian citizens have the right to live in an ecologically balanced environment, as well as it ensures the common use by the people. In 1981, the National Policy for the Environment arose. Despite being prior to the Federal Constitution, due to its compatibility with Article 225, ends up regulating it and provides in one of its principles for the rationalization of water use. In 1997, the National Policy on Water Resources was created, which provides in its Article 1, item I, that water is a public property, and therefore, it is part of that environment to which everyone is entitled.

In this way, because of this fundamental right, which is common to all Brazilians, Pes (2012) defines water as an environmental good and still stands out:

It is necessary to understand that the good environmental water (H2O), as well as the air that is breathed, is in nature in quantity unalterable and sufficient to maintain all forms of life. However, the quality of these vital elements is what is altered by anthropic action. The possibility of appropriation of a vital good, whether by the State or by individuals, is a great mistake.

Brazilian Law 9.433/97 presents in its article 1, item V, the hydrographic basin as territorial unit of implementation of the National Policy of Water Resources and performance of the National System of Management of Water Resources. From this, in order to regulate this paragraph, Resolution 32 of 2003 of the National Council of Water Resources establishes the national hydrographic division, that is, it divides the Brazilian territory into twelve hydrographic regions.

These hydrographic regions are in accordance with Article 1, sole paragraph, of this same resolution:

It is considered as a hydrographic region the Brazilian territorial space comprised of a basin, group of contiguous basins or sub-basins with homogeneous natural or social and economic characteristics or similar, in order to guide the planning and management of water resources.

Despite its enormous wealth in water resources, Brazil is plenty of problems due to water scarcity. Due to the continental size of the Brazilian territory, the regional climates are very diversified and the distribution of water resources is uneven, in addition to the Northeast region that has serious problems with drought.

Recently, the Southeast region have experienced a severe period of water shortage due to climate changes that caused the absence of precipitation. As an example, the rationing of water occurred in 2014, due to the reduced precipitation and consequent impairment of water reservoirs, especially in that year. The lack of rain in the Southeast region reflected in the recharge of its reservoirs. It is a region that has 6% of Brazilian water resources and 42.65% of the total population, according to the Ministry of Environment (MINISTÉRIO DO MEIO AMBIENTE, 2016).

The water crisis in the Southeast region mainly affected the state of São Paulo, but besides not being prepared to receive climate change, the São Paulo state government also did not have an efficient management of its water resources, and this factor contributed significantly to the crisis that the population lived.

This scenario is an example of how water resources are not distributed evenly in the national territory. In addition, it is still necessary to highlight the issue of waste in the country, which also generates losses. According to the Ministry of Environment (2016), from 20% to 60% of treated water, ready for consumption, is lost in distribution systems, in addition to the waste generated by the final consumer.

The issue of water scarcity generates international conflicts and, in the case of Brazil, is a matter that refers to issues of national security, since the dimension of the water wealth of the Brazilian territory may become attractive to other countries.

According to the National Water Agency (ANA, 2014):

The causes of the water crisis cannot be reduced, however, only to the lower rainfall rates in recent years, since other factors related to demand management and supply guarantee are important to aggravate or mitigate their occurrence. The understanding of the current water crisis, the valorization of the water resource as a finite public good and the awareness of the need for a more rational and sustainable use of water are essential to ensure greater water supply.

Also, the treatment of water for human consumption is a major contributor to basic sanitation and should be closely integrated with public health strategies because the lack of basic sanitation promotes the development of pathogens.

Several Brazilian municipalities are not legally required to have a waste management plan. In these locations, the population consumes water with macroscopic evidence of contamination due to lack of water treatment, as demonstrated in preliminary inspections. The analysis of the water system in these municipalities indicated the presence of total coliforms in three sampling areas: catchment areas, water mines, and residential areas. Monitoring the access of the population to water resources allows determining the potential risk of water contamination. Moreover, specific risk factors and the burden on the health system can be overcome by developing health promotion actions.

In this context, water is an indispensable natural resource for life on Earth. It is used for several purposes, including human and animal consumption, leisure, and hygiene, among others. Basic sanitation, including the supply of drinking water, is the right of every citizen, guaranteed by Federal Law 11.445 of 2007, which establishes national guidelines for basic sanitation. This law established that municipalities that do not provide potable water to the population according to regulatory norms limit the rights of that population to basic sanitation. In particular, the absence of basic sanitation has severe consequences to public health, and therefore basic sanitation programs should be part of health promotion actions.

Arantina, a municipality of Minas Gerais with approximately 2,873 inhabitants according to the 2010 IBGE census, does not have a water treatment system, and water is distributed directly from the catchment area to residential areas. The Cajuru river is the primary source of water supply. The water catchment area is located downstream of a landfill, which was decommissioned in 2013. This landfill is now a contaminated inactive area situated at the top of a hill and has not been subjected to remediation or recovery treatment until the publication of this study.

The objective of this study was to report the land use conditions of this contaminated area located upstream of a water dam and the quality of the water from this reservoir. Physicochemical data and local public health data were collected and analyzed to monitor qualified indicators and establish the relationship between health status and environmental factors.

The study was conducted in Arantina, in the Zona da Mata of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, and involved the analysis of documents from water management and public health authorities, including the National Water Agency, Ministry of Health, and Rio Grande Basin Committee.

Physicochemical analyses, including pH, electrical conductivity, and temperature, were conducted in in situ water samples at the Biochemical Laboratory of the Três Rios Institute at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro–UFRRJ) to assess water quality.

 

2 Materials and Methods

The Upper Rio Grande Basin was initially characterized. After that, visits were made to the Municipal Health Department and City Hall of Arantina to collect official data on the city and its water supply system.

The Municipal Health Department provided documents on the water supply system, including the Sanitary Inspection Report and water analyses conducted by the state of Minas Gerais. However, these analyses only indicated the presence or absence of Escherichia coli and fecal coliforms based on the guidelines of Ordinance No. 2,914/2011 of the Ministry of Health. The chromogenic/enzymatic method used has been detailed in Norm SMEWW (22nd edition), Method No. 9223 B.

Soil samples from the contaminated area and catchment area were analyzed by the Technical Assistance and Rural Extension Company of the State of Minas Gerais (Empresa de Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural do Estado de Minas Gerais–EMATER-MG). These analyses provided information on the soil fertility of these two areas, including micronutrients, macronutrients, organic matter, and texture.

In May, June, August, September, and October of 2016, samples were collected in five distinct areas of the urban water supply zone and one water mine located in a private area. In May, June, and August, samples were collected from four areas:

- Catchment area of the Cajuru river;

- Residential area: tap water before filtration (Mr. Abel’s property);

- Residential area: tap water after filtration (Mr. Abel’s property);

- Water mine (Mrs. Maria Garcez’s property).

CACR = catchment area of the Cajuru river; TWASBF = tap water after storage before filtration (Mr. Abel’s property); TWASAF = tap water after storage after filtration (Mr. Abel’s property); TWAS = tap water after storage (Mr. Paulo’s property); WM = water mine (Mrs. Maria Garcez property); TWBS = tap water before storage

The pH data were referenced using the regulatory standards of CONAMA 357/2005, which classifies the types of water use, and the Ministry of Health Ordinance No. 2,914/2011. No parameters for electrical conductivity were evaluated. However, Santos et al. (2007)[1] reported that conductivity ranged from 10 to 100 μS.cm-1 in natural waters. In most cases, levels >100 μS/cm indicated impacted environments (data from the Environmental Company of the State of São Paulo, 2009) or longer residence time in the aquifer (Filgueiras, 2016) and natural processes (Bidone et al., 2018).

Mondelli, Giacheti, and Hamada (2016) reported that the parameters from CETESB were rigorous for areas impacted by waste disposal and highlight the lack of established thresholds for several parameters, including electrical conductivity (EC).

Subsequently, data on precipitation and temperature in the days of sample collection in the months described above and two days before each collection were obtained from the website of the National Institute of Meteorology (INMET, 2016) to identify possible changes in water characteristics due to climate changes.

 

3 Results

The municipality of Arantina is part of the Rio Grande watershed, more specifically, the Upper Rio Grande sub-basin. It is located in the Zona da Mata in the south/southwest region of the state of Minas Gerais, near the Serra da Mantiqueira, in geographic coordinates 21º 54¢ 38.25¢¢ S and 44º 15¢ 21.48¢¢ W, with an altitude of 983 meters. This municipality borders the municipalities of Andrelândia, Bom Jardim de Minas, and Liberdade. According to the IBGE census of 2010, the territorial unit has 89,420 km², its primary biome is the Atlantic Forest, and the estimated population was 2,880 inhabitants in 2015.

The gross domestic product of the municipality is based primarily on the service, industry, and agriculture sectors. Arantina has two municipal health units.

Data from the municipal government of Arantina (2015) revealed that the municipality was initially small and was previously designated Várzea do Paiol because of the presence of a barn used for storage of corn by the owner of most of the land of the Jucá Pereira settlement. The construction of the Oeste de Minas railway fostered the expansion of the city. In the nineteenth century, the objective of the railroad was to connect the states of Goiás and Rio de Janeiro and the economic activities then were agriculture and livestock. Later, the manufacture of ceramics and dairy production also contributed to the local economy.

The development and economic growth of the town with the production of ceramics elevated it to the condition of district of the municipality of Mantiqueira, currently known as Bom Jardim de Minas. In 1963, State Law No. 2,764 of December 30, 1962, emancipated the district, elevating it to the condition of municipality on March 1, 1963.

 

3.1 Water analysis in the water treatment plant and catchment area

The analysis revealed that water management in the water catchment area was poor. The area contained cattle and horses and was contaminated with animal feces. In addition, it is important to note that several dams were built in the municipal area but were destroyed by floods.

The openings of the pipes through which the water reached the water treatment station had raffia sacs. Apparently, this material intercepted coarse solid residues present in the water. In Arantina, the working water treatment station (WTS) did not adopt all the necessary steps to restore water potability and treated the water by filtration and addition of aluminum sulfate and calcium sulfate. The captured water was sent directly to the damn and later to the distribution network of the city.

Ribeiro and Julião (2013) reported that the municipality’s public water supply system had major shortcomings. Their recommendations were installing protection fences in the areas of water uptake and storage and renovating/replacing the treatment plant. Another recommendation was prospecting the water mines as an alternative source of water that could be treated using municipal resources. The analyses provided by the municipal government indicated that water quality was better in mines than in the municipal water supply system.

The analysis also indicated that the water from the municipal system was unfit for human consumption because of the presence of E. coli and that water from some mines were contaminated with bacterial pathogens.

Despite recommendations, such municipalities face up to the absence of planning. There are no evaluation mechanisms to restore water quality. There is a superficial analysis of water catchment viability. All of these facts enhances the chances of water contamination, what may cause diseases associated with poor sanitation (Siqueira et al., 2017). According to Siqueira et al. (2017), among the causes of death in metropolitan region of Porto Alegre (Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil), the most frequent reported groups were other bacterial intestinal infections (41.7%) and diarrhea and gastroenteritis of presumed infectious origin (21.6%).

 

3.2 Analysis of the water downstream of the catchment area

Arantina had a contaminated landfill, which was decommissioned in September 2013. However, the contaminated area was still used as a water source at the time of sample collection. Municipal solid waste that would be sent to a landfill in the municipality of Barra Mansa, Rio de Janeiro, or Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, was collected from the contaminated area. The destination of the waste depended on the eventual contracting of the services by the municipal government. The landfill area was located upstream of the water catchment area, and a passage connected the landfill to the area of the river used for water uptake. In the period of heavy rain, the superficial soil layers were dragged to this passage.

The analysis of samples of air-dried fine earth (ADFE) in the landfill indicated the absence of aluminum in this area (Tables 1 to 3). It is known that the presence of aluminum causes toxicity and, in most cases, decreases the cation exchange capacity, increases the acidity, and ultimately decreases the fertility of these soils. The exchangeable bases contributing to soil fertility were Ca, K, and Mg.

 

Table 1- Analysis of pH, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, aluminum, and hydrogen + aluminum conducted in the water catchment area and in the contaminated area.

SOIL ANALYSIS

SAMPLES

pH

RP

K

Ca

Al

H + Al

H2O

mg.dm-3

cmolc.dm-³

water catchment area

4.5

1.8

37

0.17

2.2

10.42

contaminated area

5.8

7.2

144

0.92

0

1.43

 

The contaminated area had a higher pH range and a higher number of exchangeable bases - K+, Ca++, and Mg++ - (Table 2). The absence of aluminum might be due to the presence of organic matter in the landfill. In this respect, the landfill had a constant input of organic matter, which might have contributed to the difference in the aluminum levels between the samples. This result does not detract from the fact that the input of organic matter might have caused the retention of other chemical elements that are potentially toxic to the food chain. Therefore, this landfill area becomes a significant environmental liability because there is no selective collection of waste in the city to date.

 

Table 2. Sum of exchangeable bases, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, aluminum saturation, organic matter, and acid-base ratio of the soil conducted in the water catchment area and in the contaminated area.

SAMPLES

BS

t

T

V

M

O.M.

 

cmol/dm³

%

dag/kg

water catchment area

0.3

2.5

10.8

3.2

86.6

2.7

contaminated area

1.5

1.5

3

51.7

0

1.27

BS: Sum of exchangeable bases

ECEC (t): Effective cation exchange capacity

XCTC (T): Calculated cation exchange capacity (pH 7.0)

1V: Base saturation index

m: Aluminum saturation

OM: Organic matter

RP: Remaining phosphorus

 

The soil of the decommissioned landfill had a large amount of exchangeable bases; however, the organic matter content was lower than in the catchment area (Table 2). The soil in the catchment area had more organic matter and exchangeable bases (Table 3), which might be due to the deposition of particles in the rainy season and leaching and percolation in the landfill area located above the catchment area.

 

Table 3. Analysis of the acid-base ratio of the soil conducted in the water catchment area and in the contaminated area.

SAMPLES

Ca/T

Mg/T

K/T

H + Al/T

Ca+Mg/T

Ca/Mg

Ca/K

Mg/K

Ca+Mg/K

 

 (T) %

 

water catchment area

2

1

1

97

2

2

2

1

2,8

contaminated area

31

8

12

48

39

4

2

1

3,1

 

The pH was lower in the catchment area because of the increased levels of aluminum (Table 1). Clays with Al3+ are known to carry protons and acidify the soil solution. The acidity in the soil solution of the water catchment area was higher than that of the other analyzed areas. Soil analysis indicated that the aluminum level in the clay fraction was higher than in the other soil fractions and that this increased level might increase the acidity (H + Al) of the soil.

The pH values were within the expected limits (Figure 1). Except for the months of September and October in the catchment area, the variability in pH on the collection sites might be due to the photosynthetic activity of the incoming organic matter, increasing CO2 levels, and the decomposition of organic matter.

 

Figure 1. Mean monthly pH values on different collection sites

CACR = catchment area of the Cajuru river;

TWASBF = tap water after storage and before filtration (Mr. Abel’s property);

TWASAF = tap water after storage and after filtration (Mr. Abel’s property);

 TWAS = tap water after storage (Mr. Paulo’s property);

WM = water mine (Mrs. Maria Garcez’s property);

TWBS = tap water before storage

 

Electrical conductivity and lack of rainfall were higher in the catchment area in May and August (Figure 2). Electrical conductivity was lower in tap water samples after storage and before filtration. In October, the conductivity was lower in the catchment area but was higher in tap water samples after storage. In addition, conductivity was higher in water samples after filtration in all evaluated months.

 

Figure 2. Mean monthly values of electrical conductivity on different collection sites

CACR = catchment area of the Cajuru river;

TWASBF = tap water after storage before filtration (Mr. Abel’s property);

TWASAF = tap water after storage after filtration (Mr. Abel’s property);

TWAS = tap water after storage (Mr. Paulo’s property);

WM = water mine (Mrs. Maria Garcez property);

TWBS = tap water before storage

 

The electrical conductivity in tap water samples from the property of Mr. Paulo was different from that in tap water samples from the property of Mr. Abel. This result may be due to differences in the cleaning of the water tanks or the use of different plumbing material for constructing the water distribution system. In addition, electrical conductivity in tap water samples from the property of Mr. Paulo was higher than in samples from the catchment area, which is atypical considering previous analyses.

The electrical conductivity levels in water mine samples in the property of Mrs. Maria Garcez were higher than those in tap water samples (Figure 2). Filgueiras (2016) observed that it was necessary to consider the contact of the water with the geological formation that supports the groundwater, i.e., the longer was the residence time in the aquifer, the higher was the electrical conductivity. Therefore, depending on the water level of the wells and rainfall regime, the residence time of the water in the aquifers might be shorter than that in other bodies of water. Notwithstanding, higher values of electrical conductivity were expected.

Bresciani et al. (2018) proposed to convert electrical conductivity into Cl- (chloride) concentrations in groundwater in order to obtain reliable data of the recharge mechanisms. Cl– concentration may be constant, independently of the groundwater flowpath. It depends on evapotranspiration and incoming supplies from agriculture or pollution which enhances its levels in solution. In Arantina, there was a difference between water mine and the water came from the river (catchment area and tap water). Water mine presented enhanced electrical conductivity levels.

Moreover, the number of total coliforms was decreased in water samples after clay filtration (water mine). However, these samples did not reach the potability standards required by the Ministry of Health.

Our results indicate an increase in the pH values in tap water stored in tanks compared with the values in samples collected in the remaining months. Therefore, the pH levels in samples collected in June did not comply with the standards established in Ordinance No. 2914/2011.

 

3.3 Analysis of the health status of the population of Arantina

Episodes of diarrhea were reported in the population of Arantina in the sampling period, particularly cases of infection with E. coli. In this respect, Oliveira (2003) found that five E. coli strains were infective and caused acute diarrhea. Therefore, the episodes of diarrhea that occurred from June 5 to June 11 might be related to the 10-mm precipitation that occurred on June 7, which might have mixed the particles deposited on the bottom of the water reservoir. This process might increase the concentration of bacteria on the surface, including E. coli. In this respect, Amaral et al. (2006) found that the concentrations of bacteria were higher in the rainy season.

The health information booklet on the municipality of Arantina published by the Ministry of Health (2010) indicated that the rate of diseases of the genitourinary system was 100% in the age group 10 to 14 years.

The high rate of diseases of the genitourinary system in this age group may be due to presence of E. coli in the water distributed to the population. E. coli causes 70–85% of urinary tract infections and is the etiological agent most commonly associated with this type of infection.

Therefore, the results of the studies presented above corroborate a possible relationship between the presence of E. coli in the water used by the population and diseases of the genitourinary system, particularly in the age group 10 to 14 years.

 

4 Conclusion

Access to drinking water and sanitation is guaranteed by the Federal Constitution and many legal instruments. Therefore, the municipality of Arantina needs to invest in environmental education, water treatment technologies, and recovery of riparian forests and hillside areas. These strategies may improve public health and the quality of life of the population of Arantina and grant residents the fundamental right to basic sanitation guaranteed by law. However, the municipal authorities lack strategic planning, and the management of USW, tailings, and water resources is limited.

A decommissioned and contaminated landfill was maintained in Arantina for final disposal of USW. The landfill was located upstream of a water catchment area. Although the decommissioned area was vacant, the soil had high levels of organic matter and exchangeable bases. The soil in the water catchment area had high levels of aluminum and high acidity. The decreased levels of exchangeable bases in the soil of the catchment area might be due to constant water flow and flooding. The difference in altitude between the landfill area and catchment area aggravates contamination by enteropathogens, including E. coli, preventing the use of the catchment area as a source of drinking water to the population.

Installing and/or reactivating the water treatment plant is necessary to provide basic sanitation to this population. Provision of drinking water, waste management, and sanitary treatment are rights of every citizen and the duty of the public sector.

While the WTS is reactivated, the municipal government should provide essential guidelines to the population, and the Health Department should provide guidelines on water treatment by clay filtration and addition of sodium hypochlorite. Moreover, developing environmental education practices is essential to inform the population about the sanitary status of water bodies in the municipality and the possible effects on the health of the citizens. This strategy may help create awareness about the need to develop a WTS and pay for water treatment.

The borders of the water bodies used in water uptake should be reforested because they constitute a Permanent Preservation Area, and this protection is recognized by the Forest Code (2012). In addition to legal adequacy, the protection of the riparian forests near water bodies is essential for improving water quality because these forests prevent river runoff and contamination of water reservoirs.

In addition to the reforestation of riparian forests, the preservation of the vegetation cover in hillsides is fundamental for maintaining the water quality in the microbasin in question, considering that these hillsides are transmission zones and directly improve the hydrological flow. Degrading these hydrological zones facilitates erosive processes, which contribute to higher deposition of sediments and contaminants such as pesticides on the margins of riparian forests. This process overloads these forests, whose cover may not be large enough to prevent deposited particles from running off and/or contaminating the water bodies.

In addition, municipal public authorities need to promote the recovery of areas previously used as landfills. Given the environmental liabilities on this contaminated site, detailed soil analysis of the area may indicate the best strategies for treating contaminants and the best practices for recovering local environments.

Installing and/or reactivating the WTS is necessary to provide basic sanitation to this population. Provision of drinking water, waste collection, and sanitary treatment constitute rights of every citizen and the obligation of the public sector.

 

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